Chapter Overview

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Several factors motivated frontierpeople to settle New Spain's Far North. La Frontera provided escape from unemployment, natural disasters, excessive taxation, ethnic prejudice and other hardships. Frontier peoples sought opportunities to acquire land and improve their economic status. Nevertheless, pobladores encountered many difficulties: disease, labor shortages, lack of infrastructure and isolation. The Spanish Crown never succeeded in attracting settlers and achieving their national goals.

Frontier Institutions

The frontier setting shaped the institutional framework of Spanish Texas. Although Spain succeeded in thwarting French encroachments, Texas was not an inviting place. While native Americans welcomed trade opportunities, they resisted settlers’ incursions, and settlers perceived Indians as a constant threat. The frontier institution of the mission firmly established Catholicism in Texas and led to the development of San Antonio, Goliad and Nacogdoches. Presidios served to entice civilians into remote areas by providing some semblance of protection in the areas surrounding these forts. The ranching frontier and accompanying cattle trade provided Texas a mythical character while Spain’s rule over Texas left a lasting imprint throughout South Texas and the plains west of San Antonio to the Guadalupe River that one scholar referred to as the “cradle of Texas ranching.” Livestock markets extended into the neighboring provinces of Nuevo Leon and Coahuila and lucrative commercial associations were established as well with markets in Louisiana. While farmers relied on ranching and commerce in livestock to support themselves and their families, the waters of the San Antonio River and San Pedro Creek provided some agricultural success. Towns were scarce in eighteenth century Texas although they proved much safer than rural areas in fending off Indian attacks. However, lack of proper sewage facilities and the widespread practice of leaving rotting animal waste and carcasses in the open led to the spread of disease. Town living also fostered the presence of vagrants, prostitutes and other social nonconformists.

Frontier Society

A frontier society was created as cultural traditions brought from the interior of New Spain were modified; and by the early nineteenth century, all of the urban settlements had established rudimentary educational facilities. Frontier society had a range of ethnic identities. The process of mestizaje (racial and cultural assimilation involving Europeans, Indians and some Africans) was dominant in Texas where economic success overrode racial makeup in one’s classification. Of course, social differences still remained. Most Africans had not arrived in Texas as slaves. They worked alongside other laborers, many integrating themselves into colonial society, adopting Spanish surnames and learning the Spanish language. Although the Crown extended its official policy on slavery to the Far North, imposing regulations on Africans lest they revolt, because of the dire need for laborerscolonials did not enforce such regulations. Slavery in colonial Texas remains a topic for additional study.

The rigors of frontier life softened gender discrimination as they did that of race. Women fought Indians alongside their men and helped with ranch and farm chores. Isolation posed a severe problem for women but, overall, Tejanas enjoyed certain rights under Spanish law, knowing full well that they could use the judicial system for their protection—economic and physical.

 Indian Accommodation and Resistance

The number of Native Americans living in Texas during the colonial era is difficult to determine. A census in the late 1770s estimated in excess of 7,000. Many of the indigenous peoples accepted Catholicism as a means of survival. The Coahuiltecans became Hispanicized in the San Antonio area. As a result, the Coahuiltecan culture was fully absorbed, although many of their ancestors still live and worship in the old Spanish missions of the city. Colonization weakened the Karankawas as well and made them susceptible to Comanche warfare and cultural assimilation. Other indigenous groups suffered due to warfare and disease. Overall, while settlers and official Spanish policy represented a serious threat to traditional native lifestyles, and ignorance of Indian sensitivities and culture exacerbated the situation, large numbers of native peoples resisted missionization.

The Bourbon Reforms and end of the Spanish Era

Dramatic changes in Spain’s monarchical system initiated a corresponding effort to reform colonial endeavors. Administrative and tax reforms were initiated and free trade established in 1778.

The Marquis de Rubi was dispatched to report on frontier defense, and his recommendations led to relocation of East Texas missions and presidios to San Antonio. The new policy increased rather than ameliorated relations among both Indian and Los Adaes settlers. Pobladores put more emphasis on their day-to-day necessities than on implementing imperial mandates. These pobladores had long resented imperial intrusion. Even with the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms, resentment and discontent increased.

Toward the end of the Spanish era, the missions were secularized. Few Native Americans had been Christianized or Hispanicized. The Caddos manages to remain in their homeland until the mid-nineteenth century and the indios barbaros continued to wreak havoc. The presidio system had failed in its primary task as well. However, three major settlements were firmly in place: San Antonio, now the provincial capital; Goliad; and Nacogdoches. Trade was brisk but international trade was illegal. The drive for Mexican autonomy began following Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808; ripple effects were felt in far-off Texas with the de las Casas revolt of 1811 and the Gutierrez-Magee expedition of 1813. Isolation had always provided a sense of independence and self-reliance, and Tejanos were developing their own distinct character as a people of the frontier. Today, Mexico recognizes a distinctiveness to the “Norteno” variety of Mexican culture; and Tejanos would continue to pursue local political solutions rather than seeking union with a far-off state or national entity.

The Spanish Legacy

Spain never made a convincing case to encourage people to relocate in the Far North. While few Tejanos mourned the end of three hundred years of Spanish rule in 1821, it is evident that the Spanish legacy was positive. Texas still practices community property laws and the Spanish tradition of protecting debtors. Spanish cultural influence in language, geographical nomenclature, cuisine, and architecture remains a vital part of Texas identity.